Center on Reinventing Public Education

This brief explores the changing demographics of homeschoolers, provides an overview of new forms of homeschooling, and outlines the variety of state policies that govern homeschooling.

CRPE has identified 32 programs around the country that represent the variety of efforts being used to reinvent career and technical education.

Three new briefs assess the impact of California charter schools on school districts.

This brief provides an initial, formative assessment of lessons learned in the first year of ReSchool Colorado’s initiatives to expand access to out-of-school learning opportunities for children in the Denver area.

This report examines national and local trends in charter unionization, describes the reasons charter school teachers unionize, and analyzes charter school bargaining agreements.

CRPE researchers find inequities in current 21st century learning approaches and recommend strategies to deliver better learning opportunities for all students.

CRPE researchers analyze how school leaders can both encourage experimentation and support the formalization of innovative practice.

This brief on the four-day school week answers common questions about its scope and trends and points out what is not yet known about the impacts on students and districts.

This brief looks at five strategies city leaders use to improve underperforming schools and lists critical questions leaders should ask when choosing or assessing an improvement strategy.

This brief examines how students with special needs are being served by an innovative New York City charter school.

This report examines recent efforts of districts and charter schools to share key instructional practices and offers recommendations for education leaders to move forward.

This paper examines the characteristics of effective superintendents and offers guidance for current and aspiring district leaders as well as those offering superintendent training programs.

This paper reviews state policies on providing charter schools with facilities and recommends better incentives for districts to share space.

This paper provides an honest assessment of the portfolio strategy’s strengths, weaknesses, and necessary evolution.

This guide will help district and community leaders understand the benefits and risks of adopting a shorter school week.

CRPE’s report urges districts, charters, and states to work together in new ways to address the financial challenges associated with declining district enrollment.

This study examines how much public transportation passes in Denver can improve equitable access to the city's highest-quality K-12 schools.

State policy should encourage and empower school district innovation and improvement strategies.

Paul Hill and Ashley Jochim offer ideas and examples for how state chiefs can best use their powers to effectively lead the improvement of schools and districts.

Robin Lake discusses opportunities that states have to support district-charter cooperation in the National Association of State Boards of Education's journal, The State Education Standard.

Edited by Ashley Jochim and Betheny Gross, the sixth and final volume of the SEA of the Future provides SEAs a new framework under ESSA for strategic planning and concrete tools for implementation.

CRPE's new paper focuses on developing a common school performance framework, tool for measuring performance of an individual school using a defined set of metrics that is common to schools across different agencies or...

This paper looks at why many cities have missed opportunities to create more lasting relationships between their district and charter sectors, and offers suggestions for fostering stronger partnerships that could help improve...

CRPE research analyst Ashley Jochim and Drew University associate professor Patrick McGuinn explore why states are abandoning the assessments aligned with Common Core State Standards.

This paper explores opportunities for state education agencies to leverage their unique assets to advance district-charter collaboration..

This paper reviews trends around changing student populations in suburban America and the accompanying demands facing suburban public school systems.

This paper takes the first systematic look at costs associated with implementing personalized learning schools, how leaders of these schools choose to allocate their funds, and what it might take to make personalized learning...

Author Steven Hodas shares his experiences working with the New York Department of Education to foster innovative practices and develop more nimble procurement procedures.

Paul Hill and Ashley Jochim profile portfolio strategy efforts in five cities and offer lessons for leaders to sustain long-term education reform amid political opposition.

A groundbreaking new report that measures the health of school systems through a citywide lens.

This brief provides guidance for education reporters seeking to interpret findings and draw conclusions about current school discipline research.

This paper explores the practice of district superintendents looking beyond the usual candidate pool and hiring administrators who have seen strong successes in the charter sector.

This report was published by the Rural Opportunities Consortium of Idaho as part of their research on the four-day school week in rural Idaho.

How ingrained district operating systems practices can interfere with policy goals and school-level initiative, and why we need to retool the DOS to enable dynamic problem-solving.

Edited by Betheny Gross and Ashley Jochim, this fourth volume of the SEA of the Future details how rural schools and districts are innovative in how they deliver services, recruit teachers, use technology, and serve special...

This paper explains why personalized high schools are hard to get and keep, and shows how we can make them more broadly available through changes in policy and philanthropic investments.

In this paper, two different "camps" on school reform find common ground on how to improve educational accountability.

This guide educates the media and decision-makers about what questions to ask regarding charter school research, and provides them with information about the limits of any new research.

This brief outlines how empowered principals can be assets for public engagement in school systems using the portfolio strategy.

This report outlines the problems districts face in procuring innovative goods and services, shows how other sectors have modernized procurement processes, and recommends ways to reform district procurement.

This report was published by the Rural Opportunities Consortium of Idaho as part of their research on the challenges of rural education.

A survey of 4,000 parents in eight "high-choice" cities finds parents are taking advantage of choice, but they want more good options.

In this paper for the Rural Opportunities Consortium of Idaho, Paul Hill explains the importance of improving education in rural areas.

This brief discusses the ever-increasing importance of Washington State’s school principals and provides descriptive analyses of the principal workforce that uncovers opportunities for improvement.

This brief summarizes a new review of the available evidence on charter schools and student achievement

This working paper provides a systematic analysis of the field’s most rigorous studies on charter school achievement.

This report on the newly merged Shelby County Schools' (TN) provides an assessment of where the district stands in relation to the portfolio strategy’s 7 components.

This study uses student-level enrollment data from Denver to provide evidence on what drives the special education gap between charter and traditional public schools.

Edited by Betheny Gross and Ashley Jochim, the essays in this third volume of the SEA of the Future describe a "productivity infrastructure" intended to provide a foundation for the work of SEAs.

This brief provides an introductory look at how leaders can effectively engage stakeholders during the design and implementation of a common enrollment system.

In this paper for the Bush Center, Paul Hill explains why educational productivity matters and how new governance arrangements can promote it.

This "Spotlight" brief outlines four strategies for building effective communication around district change efforts.

Edited by Betheny Gross and Ashley Jochim, this volume begins a conversation with state education leaders about productivity.

Prepared for the American Enterprise Institute Conference, “Teacher Quality 2.0: Will today’s reforms hold back tomorrow’s schools?”

This brief outlines challenges of producing rigorous and useful research on how students with special needs fare in charters and makes recommendations for designing studies needed to inform policy and practice.

This interim report details the first two years of district-charter collaboration in 16 Compact cities, including lessons learned and potential opportunities and challenges ahead.

This year's edition focuses on growth and innovation and pushes charter school leaders to consider whether they are fully using their flexibility and autonomy on behalf of students.

This paper was prepared for the American Enterprise Institute's "Common Core Meets the Reform Agenda" Conference.

This brief shows how some new proposals for K-12 public education governance are complements, rather than alternatives, to the portfolio strategy.

In this short report, Paul Hill evaluates Ohio Governor John Kasich's education budget proposal.

This analysis finds two thirds of Indiana principals will likely still be leading schools in five years, suggesting the state should focus on evaluating, supporting, and developing its current school leaders.

This new book from Paul Hill and colleagues explains the underlying idea of the portfolio strategy.

Using wage and staffing data from states, this paper projects the financial and staffing implications of one innovative school model (the Rocketship lab rotation) to highlight potential impacts on the schooling workforce and...

Consideration of whether smaller classes are preferable to larger ones requires some recognition of the opportunity costs involved. This brief provides a state-by-state context by computing the dollars at stake in marginally...

This report offers the first detailed look into the financial implications for public schools embracing student-centered learning models.

This working paper examines how state finance policies that protect districts from declining or low enrollments drive up spending and inhibit adaptation.

This report examines how charter schools would fit into Washington state's public education landscape.

This brief recaps the themes of the seventh Portfolio School District Network that was held in Seattle, WA, July 2012. It also outlines some of the supports that CRPE is providing to help districts keep moving forward.

This Rapid Response brief looks at how Chicago teacher salaries compare in regional and national contexts.

This project shows how eight state education agencies have reshaped their organizations to address the challenges of improving their lowest-performing schools. By focusing on states at the forefront of the turnaround effort,...

This Center for American Progress brief dissects the nation’s sizeable investment in master’s bumps as a means of highlighting policy obstacles to a more smartly differentiated compensation approach.

In this working paper, Eric Nadelstern discusses New York City's efforts to change the central office and create a system of support organizations to oversee networks of autonomous schools.

This report examines how charter management organizations recruit, hire, and develop teachers, and how they manage teacher performance.

This working paper series examines the politics of portfolio school district reform, with a primary focus on the issues surrounding high school closures.

In January 2012, over 100 district and charter leaders gathered in New Orleans for the sixth Portfolio School District Network meeting. John White, new state superintendent of Louisiana, launched the meeting with the idea of a...

This report from the National Study of CMO Effectiveness provides key findings from the study on CMO practices, impacts, and the relationships between them. The updated report also examines longer-term impacts of CMOs on high...

This study of charter school unionization compared charter school collective bargaining agreements with traditional district contracts and found that, while the new contracts innovate in many ways, they could go much further...

This one-pager outlines the 7 key components upon which the portfolio strategy is built.

This essay was written for the PIE Network 5th Annual Policy Summit, September 2011. The authors argue that state education agencies need to shift from their role of compliance monitor to performance manager—a shift most are...

This essay looks at the efforts in a handful of states that are moving to simultaneously reform and expand how they oversee the preparation and certification of teachers and leaders.

This essay was written for the PIE Network 5th Annual Policy Summit, September 2011. The authors note that state education agencies have been tasked with increasing student outcomes on fewer funds and examine whether they are...

This report examines whether State Education Agencies (SEAs) have the capacity they need to fulfill their expanding roles in turning around schools in need of improvement.

A growing number of urban districts across the country are pursuing a "portfolio strategy," profoundly changing the role of the school district and its relationship to schools in order to bring about dramatically better...

This study identifies key functions performed by state education agencies, estimates the relative level of resources devoted to each activity, and explores ways SEAs could free up resources to build school improvement capacity...

In February 2011, the Center on Reinventing Public Education convened a conference to help districts implementing school choice under the U.S. Department of Education’s Voluntary Public School Choice program. This paper...

This paper examines charter school leaders' deliberate strategies to hire teachers who will boost student achievement and contribute to a thriving school culture.

This report focuses on the evidence to date on how students with special needs fare under choice, and promising new ideas that have yet to be tried.

In 2010, New York City’s Department of Education created the Innovation Zone to employ cutting edge technology to solve students’ most persistent learning problems. This study analyzes the iZone's impact so far.

In April 2010, the Center on Reinventing Public Education and the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation convened a group of researchers and financial analysts to discuss how to better understand the financing and sustainability...

This brief describes how a different method of supplying benefits to employees might work for districts: cafeteria plans. While typical school district plans offer a one-size-fits-all package of benefits to employees,...

This brief analyzes Seattle's school 2009-2010 performance levels, how performance varies across the city, and how access to high-performing schools varies across demographic groups.

This Education Next forum addresses what we know about the strengths and frailties of CMOs, what the future holds, and what promising alternatives might be. 

"Waiting for 'Superman'" may leave Washington viewers wondering, “How does our state stack up?” This guide presents facts about the state of education in Washington and ideas for what parents and communities can do to get...

In this brief, CRPE analysts find that most of Washington's largest districts spend less per math or science teacher than for teachers in other subjects.

This paper, one of a series of papers designed to assist leaders in portfolio district reform efforts, argues that effective, strategic communications policies and practices are a key element of successful portfolio reform....

Leading districts are creating multiple pathways to graduation that might keep students from dropping out. Early results are promising.

Looking at the 15 largest districts in California, this analysis finds that teachers at risk of layoff are concentrated in schools with more poor and minority students, concluding that "last in, first out" policies...

This book explores how to improve estimates of charter schools' performance and suggests how policymakers can learn more about charter schools and make better use of evidence.

This book explains how varied funding streams can prevent schools from delivering academic services that mesh with their stated priorities and offers concrete prescriptions for reform.

Drawing on an an original survey of hiring practices in charter schools and their local school districts in six-states, this paper offers an exploratory look at how charter schools compete for teachers across local contexts....

The CRPE founder isn’t afraid to challenge existing institutions when they fail to serve kids, and respects the evidence, no matter what it says. A look at Hill's legacy.

This book examines the real-world factors that can complicate, delay, and in some instances interfere with the positive cause-and-effect relationships identified by the theories behind school choice. Hill explains why schools...

This edition of Hopes, Fears, & Reality explores the lessons high-performing charter schools offer for other public schools, including the alignment of lesson content with state curriculum, frequent formative...

This analysis argues that in the current fiscal climate, districts should rethink automatically paying teachers for master's degrees, and consider how money could instead be channeled into compensation in ways that lead to...

Study on four urban school districts experimenting with new school designs and new ways of holding schools accountable for performance by implementing a "portfolio strategy."

This report surveys the broad transportation landscape and conducts in-depth work with families in two cities to determine what role transportation plays in parents' school decisions, and how districts might address related...

This analysis shows that school districts faced with large budget gaps could avoid some or all teacher layoffs by rolling back salaries.

This research brief analyzes detailed descriptions of charter school educational programs to better understand how these schools tailor their programs to meet their students' needs.

This brief considers the role of transfer and articulation policies in higher education policy and administration.

The paper exploits variation across states in education policies and labor laws to identify differences in teacher contract choice at the local level, and finds relatively small variances in contract outcomes within the state...

In this brief, Marguerite Roza explains why K-12 school districts that lay off personnel according to seniority cause disproportionate damage to their programs and students than if layoffs were determined on a seniority-...

This study of Ohio Governor Ted Strickland's education plan, published by the Thomas B. Fordham Institute, finds that the plan's so-called "evidence-based" approach would actually scuttle any modernizing efforts.

This guest editorial argues that the Bush administration failed to meaningfully move the charter sector forward.

This paper provides an analysis of 14 charter school studies that use the two most rigorous methods: either randomization based on lotteries, or value-added modeling.

This op-ed argues that Washington's budget crisis presents a good time for school districts to find innovative ways to do more with less, but the state hasn't created the context necessary for districts to redesign toward...

This article examines a few methods that assess the relationship between educational investment and educational outcome, then focuses on a Return on Investment (ROI) model to assess the efficiency of an urban district.

This is a pre-print version of an article that was published in ASBO International's School Business Affairs magazine. The article summarizes a five year research study that examined the linkages between how money is...

In this report CRPE researchers explore the complex job of charter school directors, who may have little experience with facilities, finances, hiring, or strategic planning; some of the most serious issues for charter schools...

This paper explores the value teachers place on financial incentives and how much of a salary incentive is needed to attract new teachers to high-needs schools.

This commentary from the News & Observer argues that North Carolina needs to fundamentally reform how the state funds its public schools.

This report presents findings from exploratory case studies of six charter schools identified due to their reported success educating children with disabilities.

This working paper summarizes common problems faced by new and established charter schools and highlights strategies to diagnose and, when appropriate, intervene in struggling schools.

This paper briefly summarizes three School Finance Redesign Project teacher compensation studies that begin to help build the evidence base for teacher pay reform.

This paper describes how high-quality authorizers have changed their application procedures and standards and examines the effect these changes have had on the quality and quantity of new charter school applicants.

This paper considers systematic school reform efforts in Australia, New Zealand and England, where each government took steps to heighten accountability, decentralize governance and invest in schools’ capacity to improve...

This paper explores the nature of micro-budgeting decisions and shows how they support or hamper district reform strategies. It also provides a framework to help district leaders recognize different kinds of allocations.

This working paper presents results from a qualitative field study of school-based hiring—one of the more foundational ideas for reforming centralized and bureaucratic human resource management (HRM) systems.

This paper identifies tactics districts can use to influence the factors that shape the supply and quality of providers of autonomous schools in thin markets.

This paper finds that informal partnerships between authorizers and private organizations have the potential to improve the quality and quantity of new schools.

This Education Week article outlines changes to the education finance system that are needed in order to bring about new and more productive uses of existing funds.

This paper summarizes the research evidence on charter school innovation to date and suggests ways to more productively pursue future research and development in the charter sector.

This report explores the various difficulties charter schools face related to educating children with disabilities and examines potential opportunities to address those.

This op ed urges the Washington's Basic Education Finance Joint Task Force to move to change our education finance system to support the state's education goals.

New accountability systems require that states and districts accomplish something never accomplished before—ensuring that all students meet state standards. This report explores how these expectations have altered resource...

This article first appeared in the Seattle Times, December 19, 2007.

This brief touches on the experiences of urban school districts as they sought to close schools. It offers insight into the critical questions districts encountered and different paths chosen during the process.

This commentary by Paul Hill first appeared in Education Week, September 4, 2007. Hill lays out the reasons that school choice has been more challenging than originally envisioned and suggests which problems need to be...

Policymakers and researchers alike have expressed concern about a teacher quality gap between schools with affluent student populations and the more disadvantaged ones. This study uses teacher and school-level data from the...

This paper describes research designed to shed light on how teachers feel about different pay and incentive reforms.

This study examines resource allocation patterns across elementary schools and how these patterns differ depending, in part, on various levels of autonomy over resources at the school level.

This policy analysis tool, created by by Education Resource Strategies, helps districts deliberate about how to use funds effectively.

The report examines lessons from New York's experience with charter caps politics and provides policy considerations relevant to the growing number of states in which charter schools are reaching their legislated limit.

This paper shows how districts can assess the efficiency of their own resource use compared to similar districts and judge whether non-instructional expenditures are excessive.

This paper explores ways districts can reduce the costs (in terms of lost school productivity and lost training investments) of teacher turnover.

New accountability systems require that states and districts accomplish something never accomplished before—ensuring that all students meet state standards. This report explores how these expectations have altered resource...

Analyzing data from the 2003-04 Schools and Staffing Survey (SASS), this working paper finds that charter schools consistently reported significantly fewer issues with threats to persons or property and fewer behavioral...

This report presents the results of an analysis of perceived barriers to high school redesign and real impediments embedded in federal and state statutes and regulations, as well as in local district policies in the state of...

How might money be used in a more productive system? This working paper imagines a public educational system in which it is possible to link benefits received with costs borne.

This working paper shows that many districts have accelerated student learning by reallocating funds to emphasize targeted assistance to students, fewer non-instructional burdens on teachers, greater use of instructional...

This paper explores how schools can seek “continuous improvement.”

This paper asks whether significant changes in public education finance are politically feasible.

Researchers with CRPE's Doing School Choice Right initiative determine what drives the school-choice decisions made by 800 low- to moderate-income families in three cities.

This edition of Hopes, Fears, & Reality explores some of the most controversial issues facing the charter school movement and the implications of continued growth for leading players in the charter school debates....

This report, published by Education Sector, examines common teacher contract provisions, estimates total spending on these provisions, examines studies on their effects on student achievement, and explores how these “frozen...

The National Charter School Research Project and the Progressive Policy Institute convened a meeting of local, state, and national leaders from both the charter school and teachers union communities to address ongoing battles...

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Charter Schools against the Odds, published by Hoover Institution Press, analyzes laws and policies that are restricting growth of charter schools, and explores alternatives of how to instead, encourage the...

This Ed Week commentary looks at the differences in the problems the Gates Foundation has addressed, and in the strategies it has used, via its health and education giving.

In this article, Paul Hill argues that mayors who seek to reform their schools need to untangle the tendrils of school district accounting practices, and he warns that mayors who attempt large-scale school reform without first...

This paper examines the issues surrounding decisions to discontinue the use of Comprehensive School Reform models by participating schools.

This Education Week commentary by Paul Teske, Patrick Wolf, and Paul Hill discusses low-income parents and school choice.

This paper gives an advance report on the results of studies in the Doing School Choice Right project.

This paper details the portfolio management approach—a new vision for education reform that fosters innovation, adaptability, and performance.

This essay is part of a collection of essays published by The Urban Institute that assess the challenges facing New Orleans and recommend tested models for making the city's social infrastructure stronger and more equitable...

This report examines licensure content for principals to address whether the licenses that states require encompass the knowledge and skills principals need and how decisionmakers might rethink licenses.

This debut edition of Hopes, Fears, & Reality provides new data on many aspects of charter schools in the United States and examines issues and controversies surrounding reform.

Drawing on data from five large school districts, this report reveals that the nation's main program for educating the disadvantaged, Title I, is hampered by loopholes that prevent it from fulfilling its mission.

This is the first in a series of working papers on ways people working for the disadvantaged might use evidence about within-district spending inequalities.

In this article, Published by the Hoover Institution, Paul Hill argues that Tony Blair took a bolder approach to education reform than anyone expected of a Labour prime minister and that similar reforms are possible in the US...

This brief examines small high school costs in Denver and Seattle, analyzing each layer of district expenditures in order to get a better look at the price tag for small schools in comparison to others.

This commentary from Education Week argues for more research on the role of district human-resources departments in bringing high quality teachers into the profession.

This brief, published by NACSA, explores the reasons urban, suburban, and rural districts alike have embraced charter schools as an integral part of their overall strategy for school improvement, and offers suggestions for...

This working paper examines the potential fiscal impact of charter schools in Washington State, at both the state and local levels.

This study examines the characteristics of elementary schools that experience chronic teacher turnover and the impacts of turnover on a school's working climate and ability to effectively function.

This report summarizes a two-day seminar which addressed the question, "How Can Communities Do School Choice Right?" convened at the Brookings Institution, Washington, D.C., in August 2004.

Based on 49 interviews with district and school personnel, the report's aim is to identify key issues that leaders in districts elsewhere can use to begin thinking about how they might make their HR office more efficient or...

This paper, published by Brookings Institution Press, reports the results of an original study of district spending at the school level. It shows that teacher cost averaging drives significant amounts of money out of schools...

This report, published by The Phi Delta Kappan, traces Cincinnati Public Schools's process of moving to a system of student based budgeting: funding children rather than staff members, and weighting the funding according...

This report, based on in-depth interviewes with educators, looks at the daily working lives of school leaders. It then asks what this implies for policy and leadership development.

This report suggests that even with the economic slowdown and the sense of relief from a pending teacher shortage, districts will continue to struggle to get and keep good teachers unless they make dramatic changes in the ways...

Based on a survey and on interviews with superintendents from the nation's largest urban districts, this study explores the working life of urban superintendents. This report is second in second in the Center's leadership...

This article looks at why we should devolve decisionmaking in schools. Hill recommends three changes in state laws to create a public education system in which families and teachers have options, schools have a good balance of...

Aimed toward elected officials, school reform activists, and educators, this book is the result of the first national-scale study of charter school accountability.

This report summarizes the functions of school boards, identifies some of the problems with big city school boards, and suggests options for reorienting boards around the trusteeship of the children they serve.

Many foundations have put funds into urban school reform. The paper suggests that foundation giving needs to be backed up by a clear theory of change and that foundation officials need to know whether the districts in which...

This guide provides an overview of the school development process in three sections and includes an appendix of additional resources. It should be helpful for anyone starting a new school, whether it is a private school, a...

In this commentary, Paul Hill and James Harvey look at how urban superintendents can get beyond misleading platitudes to confront real problems.

This report, prepared for the Annie E. Casey Foundation, describes why community schools are important, addresses the initial questions and concerns in creating community schools, explains promising approaches, and concludes...

This study examines the experiences of fifteen elementary schools in Washington State demonstrating relatively slow improvement on the reading and math sections of the WASL.

In this commentary, published by the Hoover Institution, Paul Hill writes that the key to reversing the inequitable distribution of teachers in big cities is to give real-dollar budgets to all schools and charge schools the...

This commentary by Paul Hill, published by Brookings, suggests that failed school systems need to create hybrid reform strategies drawn from the strong parts of various reform proposals, rather than relying on "name brand"...

This paper is the result of a review of efforts across the country, and specifically in five states, to introduce performance accountability into education reform strategies.

This report documents Washington State's attempts to ensure students meet new, higher standards for student learning. It is part of a trio of reports on this topic. The other reports are: Making Standards Work (1999) and...

This volume is the second in a trilogy of books designed to describe the politics of reform in urban school systems and clarify reform options available to mayors and other community leaders who want to improve school...

This report works at identifying steps Washington state schools can take to improve new state assessment scores and meet higher state standards. Follow-up reports include Making Standards Stick (2000) and Making Standards...

This report was written in anticipation of the passage of House Bill 1834, a charter school statute considered and ultimately rejected by the Pennsylvania legislature in the fall of 1996. The information and advice contained...

This report sketches a strong and unique accountability system for Washington State, one that is driven by measurements of student performance and incentives to improve, creates clear lines of responsibility, gives every...

This report examines the "supply side" of education reform - the extent to which proposals to decentralize public education can be implemented by the individuals, groups, or institutions prepared to operate schools in the new...

This is a guidebook for school boards and other government agencies given the power to permit private individuals and groups to operate autonomous public schools under state charter school legislation.

This report was written for a very specialized audience—individuals considering the passage or amendment of charter school legislation.

This paper examines the trend in school districts, across the country and in Seattle, of substantially withdrawing from mandatory integration policies.